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Jewelry Facts...
Impact on society
Jewelry has been used to denote status. In ancient Rome, for instance, only
certain ranks could wear rings;[7] later, sumptuary
laws dictated who could wear what type of jewelry; again based on rank.
Cultural dictates have also played a significant role; for example, the wearing
of earrings by Western men was considered "effeminate" in the 19th
and early 20th centuries.
Conversely, the jewelry industry in the early 20th century launched a campaign
to popularize wedding
rings for men — which caught on — as well as engagement
rings for men - which did not, going so far as to create a false history
and claim that the practice had Medieval roots. By the mid 1940s, 85% of weddings
in the U.S. featured a double-ring ceremony, up from 15% in the 1920s.[8] Religion
has also played a role: Islam, for instance, considers the wearing of gold
by men as a social taboo,[9] and
many religions have edicts against excessive display.[10]
History
The history of jewelry is a long one, with many different uses among different
cultures. It has endured for thousands of years and has provided various insights
into how ancient cultures worked.
Early
history
The Nassarius beads
thought to be the oldest form of jewelry.
The first signs of jewelry came from the Cro-Magnons,
ancestors of Homo
sapiens, around 40,000 years ago. The Cro-Magnons originally migrated from
the Middle
East to settle in Europe and
replace the Neanderthals as
the dominant species.
The jewelry pieces they made were crude necklaces and bracelets of
bone, teeth and stone hung on pieces of string or animal sinew,
or pieces of carved bone used to secure clothing together. In some cases, jewelry
had shell or mother-of-pearl pieces.
In southern Russia,
carved bracelets made of mammoth tusk have
been found. Most commonly, these have been found as grave-goods. Around 7,000
years ago, the first sign of copper jewelry
was seen.[2]
Africa Egypt
Gold, lapis
lazuli, turquoise, carnelian,
14 cm wide.
The first signs of established jewelry making in Ancient
Egypt was around 3,000-5,000 years ago.[11] The Egyptians preferred
the luxury, rarity, and workability of gold over
other metals. Predynastic
Egypt had already acquired much gold; although the Egyptians acquired gold
from the eastern deserts of
Africa and from Nubia,
in later years they captured it in the spoils of war or
acquired it as tributes from other nations.
Jewelry in Egypt soon began to symbolize power and religious power in the community.
Although it was worn by wealthy Egyptians in life, it was also worn by them
in death, with jewelry commonly placed among grave
goods. Unfortunately, grave robbers have destroyed much of the archeological
evidence.
In conjunction with gold jewelry, Egyptians used coloured glass in
place of precious gems. Although the Egyptians had access to gemstones, they
preferred the colours they could create in glass over the natural colours of
stones. For nearly each gemstone, there was a glass formulation used by the
Egyptians to mimic it. The colour of the jewelry was very important, as different
colours meant different things; the Book
of the Dead dictated that the necklace of Isis around
a mummy’s neck must be red to satisfy Isis’s need for blood, while
green jewelry meant new growth for crops and fertility. Although lapis
lazuli and silver had to be imported from beyond the country’s borders,
most other materials for jewelry were found in or near Egypt, for example in
the Red Sea,
where the Egyptians mined Cleopatra's
favorite gem, the emerald.
Egyptian jewelry was predominantly made in large workshops attached to temples or palaces.
Egyptian designs were most common in Phoenician jewelry.
Also, ancient Turkish designs
found in Persian jewelry
suggest that trade between the Middle East and Europe was
not uncommon. Women wore elaborate gold and silver pieces that were used in
ceremonies.[11]
Europe and the Middle East Mesopotamia
By approximately 4,000 years ago, jewelry-making had become a significant
craft in the cities of Sumer and Akkad.
The most significant archaeological evidence comes from the Royal
Cemetery of Ur, where hundreds of burials dating 2900–2300 BC were
unearthed; tombs such as that of Puabi contained
a multitude of artifacts in gold, silver, and semi-precious stones, such as lapis
lazuli crowns embellished with gold figurines, close-fitting collar necklaces,
and jewel-headed pins. In Assyria,
men and women both wore extensive amounts of jewelry, including amulets,
ankle bracelets, heavy multistrand necklaces, and cylinder
seals.[12]
Jewelry in Mesopotamia tended to be manufactured from thin metal leaf and was
set with large numbers of brightly-coloured stones (chiefly agate, lapis, carnelian,
and jasper). Favored shapes included leaves, spirals, cones, and bunches of grapes.
Jewellers created works both for human use and for adorning statues and idols;
they employed a wide variety of sophisticated metalworking techniques, such as cloisonne, engraving,
fine granulation, and filigree.[13]
Extensive and meticulously maintained records pertaining to the trade and manufacture
of jewelry have also been unearthed throughout Mesopotamian archaeological sites.
One record in the Mari royal
archives, for example, gives the composition of various items of jewelry:
Greece
The Greeks started using gold and gems in jewelry in 1,400 BC, although beads
shaped as shells and animals were produced widely in earlier times. By 300 BC,
the Greeks had mastered making coloured jewelry and using amethysts, pearl and emeralds.
Also, the first signs of cameos appeared,
with the Greeks creating them from Indian Sardonyx,
a striped brown pink and cream agate stone.
Greek jewelry was often simpler than in other cultures, with simple designs and
workmanship. However, as time progressed the designs grew in complexity different
materials were soon utilized.
Jewelry in Greece was hardly worn and was mostly used for public appearances
or on special occasions. It was frequently given as a gift and was predominantly
worn by woman to show their wealth, social status and beauty. The jewelry was
often supposed to give the wearer protection from the “Evil
Eye” or endowed the owner with supernatural powers, while others
had a religious symbolism. Older pieces of jewelry that have been found were
dedicated to the Gods. The largest production of jewelry in these times came
from Northern Greece and Macedon.
However, although much of the jewelry in Greece was made of gold and silver with ivory and
gems, bronze and clay copies
were made also.
Jewelry makers in Ancient Greece were largely anonymous. They worked the types
of jewelry into two different styles of pieces; cast pieces and pieces hammered
out of sheet metal. Fewer pieces of cast jewelry have been recovered; it was
made by casting the metal onto two stone or clay moulds. Then the two halves
were joined together and wax and
then molten metal, was placed in the centre. This technique had been in practised
since the late Bronze
Age. The more common form of jewelry was the hammered sheet type. Sheets
of metal would be hammered to the right thickness & then soldered together.
The inside of the two sheets would be filled with wax or another liquid to
preserve the metal work. Different techniques, such as using a stamp or engraving,
were then used to create motifs on the jewelry. Jewels may then be added to
hollows or glass poured into special cavities on the surface.
The Greeks took much of their designs from outer origins, such as Asia when Alexander
the Great conquered part of it. In earlier designs, other European influences
can also be detected. When Roman rule came to Greece, no change in jewelry designs
was detected. However, by 27 BC, Greek designs were heavily influenced by the
Roman culture. That is not to say that indigenous design did not thrive; numerous polychrome butterfly
pendants on silver foxtail chains,
dating from the 1st century, have been found near Olbia,
with only one example ever found anywhere else.[15]
Rome
Although jewelry work was abundantly diverse in earlier times, especially among
the barbarian tribes such as the Celts,
when the Romans conquered most of Europe, jewelry was changed as smaller factions
developed the Roman designs. The most common artefact of early Rome was the brooch,
which was used to secure clothing together. The Romans used a diverse range
of materials for their jewelry from their extensive resources across the continent.
Although they used gold, they sometimes used bronze or bone and in earlier
times, glass beads & pearl. As early as 2,000 years ago, they imported Sri
Lankan sapphires and
Indian diamonds and used emeralds and amber in
their jewelry. In Roman-ruled England,
fossilized wood called jet from
Northern England was often carved into pieces of jewelry. The early Italians
worked in crude gold and created clasps, necklaces, earrings and bracelets. They
also produced larger pendants which
could be filled with perfume.
Like the Greeks, often the purpose of Roman jewelry was to ward off the “Evil
Eye” given by other people. Although woman wore a vast array of jewelry,
men often only wore a finger ring.
Although they were expected to wear at least one ring, some Roman men wore a
ring on every finger, while others wore none. Roman men and women wore rings
with a carved stone on it that was used with wax to seal documents, an act that
continued into medieval times
when kings and
noblemen used the same method. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the jewelry
designs were absorbed by neighbouring countries and tribes.
Eagle-shaped Visigothic cloisonné fibula
from Guadalajara, Spain.
Bronze. 6th century.
Post-Roman Europe continued to develop jewelry making skills; the Celts and Merovingians in
particular are noted for their jewelry, which in terms of quality matched or
exceeded that of Byzantium. Clothing fasteners, amulets, and to a lesser extent signet
rings are the most common artefacts known to us; a particularly striking
celtic example is the Tara
Brooch. The Torc was
common throughout Europe as a symbol of status and power. By the 8th century,
jewelled weaponry was common for men, while other jewelry (with the exception
of signet rings) seems to become the domain of women. Grave goods found in a
6th-7th century burial near Chalon-sur-Saône are
illustrative; the young girl was buried with: 2 silver fibulae,
a necklace (with coins), bracelet, gold earings, a pair of hair-pins, comb, and
buckle.[16] The Celts specialized
in continuous patterns and designs; while Merovignian designs are best known
for stylized animal figures.[17] They
were not the only groups known for high quality work; note the Visigoth work
shown here, and the numerous decorative objects found at the Anglo-Saxon Ship
burial at Sutton
Hoo Suffolk, England,
are a particularly well-known example.[11] On
the continent, cloisonné and garnet were
perhaps the quintessential method and gemstone of the period.
Renaissance
The Renaissance and
exploration both had significant impacts on the development of jewelry in Europe.
By the 17th century, increasing exploration and trade lead to increased availability
of a wide variety of gemstones as well as exposure to the art of other cultures.
Whereas prior to this the working of gold and precious metal had been at the
forefront of jewelry, this period saw increasing dominance of gemstones and their
settings. A fascinating example of this is the Cheapside
Hoard, the stock of a jeweller hidden in London England during the Commonwealth period
and not found again until 1912. It contained Colombian emerald, topaz, amazonite from
Brazil, spinel, iolite,
and chrysoberyl from
Sri Lanka, ruby from
India, Afghani lapis
lazuli, Persian turquoise,
Red Sea peridot,
as well as Bohemian and Hungarian opal, garnet,
and amethyst.
Large stones were frequently set in box-bezels on enamelled rings.[19] Notable
among merchants of the period was Jean-Baptiste
Tavernier, who in the 1660s brought the precursor stone of the Hope
Diamond to France.
When Napoleon
Bonaparte was crowned as Emperor of the French in 1804, he revived
the style and grandeur of jewelry and fashion in France. Under Napoleon’s
rule, jewellers introduced parures,
suites of matching jewelry, such as a diamond tiara,
diamond earrings,
diamond rings, a diamond brooch and a diamond necklace. Both of Napoleon’s
wives had beautiful sets such as these and wore them regularly. Another fashion
trend resurrected by Napoleon was the cameo.
Soon after his cameo decorated crown was seen, cameos were highly sought after.
The period also saw the early stages of costume
jewelry, with fish
scale covered glass beads in place of pearls or conch shell
cameos instead of stone cameos. New terms were coined to differentiate the
arts: jewellers who worked in cheaper materials were called bijoutiers, while
jewellers who worked with expensive materials were called joailliers;
a practice which continues to this day.
Romanticism
Starting in the late 18th century, Romanticism had
a profound impact on the development of western jewelry. Perhaps the most
significant influences were the public’s fascination with the treasures
being discovered through the birth of modern archaeology,
and the fascination with Medieval and Renaissance art. Changing social conditions
and the onset of the industrial
revolution also lead to growth of a middle class that wanted and could afford
jewelry. As a result, the use of industrial processes, cheaper alloys, and stone
substitutes, lead to the development of paste or costume
jewelry. Distinguished goldsmiths continued to flourish, however, as wealthier
patrons sought to ensure that what they wore still stood apart from the jewelry
of the masses, not only through use of precious metals and stones but also though
superior artistic and technical work; one such artist was the French goldsmith Françoise
Désire Fromment Meurice. A category unique to this period and quite
appropriate to the philosophy of romanticism was mourning
jewelry. It originated in England, where Queen
Victoria was often seen wearing jet jewelry
after the death of Prince
Albert; and allowed the wearer to continue wearing jewelry while expressing
a state of mourning at the death of a loved one.[20]
In the United states, this period saw the founding in 1837 of Tiffany & Co. by Charles
Lewis Tiffany. Tiffany's put the United States on the world map in terms
of jewelry, and gained fame creating dazzling commissions for people such as
the wife of Abraham
Lincoln; later it would gain popular notoriety as the setting of the film Breakfast
at Tiffany's. In France, Pierre
Cartier founded Cartier
SA in 1847, while 1884 saw the founding of Bulgari in
Italy. The modern production studio had been born; a step away from the former
dominance of individual craftsmen and patronage.
This period also saw the first major collaboration between East and West; collaboration
in Pforzheim between
German and Japanese artists lead to Shakudo plaques
set into Filigree frames
being created by the Stoeffler firm in 1885).[21] Perhaps
the grand finale – and an appropriate transition to the following period – were
the masterful creations of the Russian artist Peter
Carl Fabergé, working for the Imperial Russian court, whose Fabergé eggs and
jewelry pieces are still considered as the epitome of the goldsmith’s
art.
Art
Nouveau
In the 1890s, jewellers began to explore the potentials of the growing Art
Nouveau style. Very closely related were the German Jugendstil,
British (and to some extent American) Arts
and Crafts movement. René Lalique,
working for the Paris shop of Samuel
Bing, was recognized by contemporaries as a leading figure in this trend.
The Darmstadt
Artists' Colony and Wiener
Werkstaette provided perhaps the most significant German input to the trend,
while in Denmark Georg
Jensen, though best known for his Silverware,
also contributed significant pieces. In England, Liberty & Co and
the British arts & crafts movement of Charles
Robert Ashbee contributed slightly more linear but still characteristic designs.
The new style moved the focus of the jeweller's art from the setting of stones
to the artistic design of the piece itself; Lalique's famous dragonfly design
is one of the best examples of this. Enamels played
a large role in technique, while sinuous organic lines are the most recognizable
design feature. The end of World War One once again changed public attitudes;
and a more sober style was set to take center-stage.[22]